Month: October 2023

By Emna Esseghir

Leaf from the Blue Quran of Tunisia showing Sura 30: 28–32, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. (Photo: Wikimedia Commons)

Human is Social by Nature

Ibn Khaldun, the distinguished Tunisian historian and scholar, expounded in his seminal work, the “Muqaddimah,” the profound idea that humans innately gravitate towards forming social groups, tribes, and communities. He persuasively argued that these intrinsic social bonds not only define our human nature but also serve as the bedrock for the development and sustainability of entire civilizations. This notion of social cohesion finds resonance in our broader human proclivity for connectivity, which echoes resoundingly throughout history.

The fascinating evolution of human communication further underscores our fundamental need to express and safeguard knowledge. This captivating journey commenced with rudimentary visual storytelling through cave paintings and progressively evolved into more structured forms of writing, including early pictograms and ideograms etched in cuneiform and hieroglyphics. As human societies advanced, the emergence of abstract scripts, epitomized by the Phoenician alphabet, substantially enhanced the efficacy of communication. The pinnacle of this progress was reached through the artistry of calligraphy, where skilled artisans elevated writing into a form of visual expression. Through the medium of calligraphy, they crafted exquisite manuscripts, sacred texts, and official documents, eloquently illustrating our unwavering commitment to conveying ideas, sharing wisdom, and etching an enduring legacy on the tapestry of human history.

To explore the captivating world of Arabic calligraphy, which serves as a testament to the beauty of written expression, In this article, I will explore the history and evolution of Arabic calligraphy. Additionally, I will elucidate various aspects of Arabic calligraphy exhibited within the Muzium Negara.

What’s Arabic Calligraphy?

Based on the definition given by the Unesco, Arabic calligraphy is the artful practice of elegantly writing Arabic script, aiming to convey a sense of harmony, grace, and beauty. This tradition, passed down through both formal and informal educational channels, involves the skillful arrangement of the twenty-eight letters of the Arabic alphabet in a flowing, cursive style, typically from right to left. Initially designed to enhance the legibility of written text, it gradually evolved into a revered form of Islamic Arab art, applicable to both traditional and contemporary works. The flowing nature of Arabic script offers endless creative possibilities, allowing letters to be elongated and transformed in various ways to create diverse visual patterns.

Text from a 14th century Quran written in the Rayhani script
(Photo: Wikimedia Commons)

Traditional techniques employ natural materials like reeds and bamboo stems as writing tools, while ink is meticulously crafted from a mixture of honey, black soot, and saffron. The paper used is handmade and treated with starch, egg white, and alum. In contrast, modern calligraphy frequently employs markers and synthetic paints, and spray paint becomes the medium of choice for calligraffiti, which adorns walls, signs, and buildings. Artisans and designers utilize Arabic calligraphy to enhance various art forms, including marble and wood carving, embroidery, and metal etching.

Origins of Arabic Calligraphy

The pre-Islamic period in the history of Arabic calligraphy was characterized by a relatively rudimentary form of the Arabic script. During this time, the Arabian Peninsula was home to various tribal communities, and the Arabic script, which had evolved from the Nabatean script, was used primarily for practical purposes such as inscriptions and basic record-keeping.

Map of the Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled CE 117–138), showing the location of the Arabes Nabataei in the desert regions around the Roman province of Arabia Petraea

This script had a limited number of characters and was written from right to left. Over time, as the Arabian Peninsula became more interconnected through trade and cultural exchange, the script began to evolve to accommodate the Arabic language.

In pre-Islamic Arabia, the primary means of communication and cultural preservation was through oral tradition. Poems and stories were passed down orally from one generation to the next. Writing was less developed, and the use of the Arabic script was limited mainly to practical purposes such as inscribing names, tribal markings, and important declarations on stones and other surfaces.

Examples of Nabataean inscriptions from Petra (Source: https://www.swissinfo.ch/spa/multimedia/tras-las-huellas-de-scheich-ibrahim_petra–esplendor-del-desierto/34695166)

The early Arabic script bore the influence of neighboring scripts like Aramaic and Syriac, evident in some of the shapes and characters present in early Arabic inscriptions.

These initial instances of Arabic script dating from that era are observable in inscriptions on pre-Islamic artifacts, including tombstones, coins, and the foundations of structures. These inscriptions tended to be straightforward and pragmatic, serving functional purposes rather than showcasing the artistic finesse associated with calligraphy.

It’s worth highlighting that the development of Arabic calligraphy as a refined and artistic tradition occurred later, coinciding with the rise of Islam. The Quran, revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, played a pivotal role in elevating the Arabic script to a higher status. This transformation ultimately gave rise to the diverse calligraphic styles and forms that we now associate with Arabic calligraphy.

Arabic Calligraphy’s Zenith

The early development of Arabic calligraphy represents a captivating narrative of artistic evolution that defies linear progression. Across geographically dispersed regions like Damascus, Baghdad, Morocco, and Spain, a rich tapestry of scripts flourished and waned in popularity. Among these, Kufic, originating from the city of Kufah in Iraq, emerged as the initial universal script, holding sway over Arabic calligraphy from the 7th to the 11th century. However, during this early period, Kufic retained a certain ruggedness and lacked the systematic refinement that would characterize its later incarnations during the “Golden Age” of calligraphy.

The turning point in the journey of Arabic calligraphy arrived in 762 when the Abbasid Caliph Mansur embarked on a grand endeavor—the construction of Baghdad, a meticulously planned city positioned strategically along the banks of the Tigris River. Baghdad swiftly ascended to the status of the cultural nucleus of the Middle East, attracting scholars, artists, and intellectuals from far and wide. It was in this vibrant and intellectually charged atmosphere that Arabic calligraphy reached its zenith of development.

This illustrious “Golden Age” of Arabic calligraphy is often epitomized by the contributions of three iconic calligraphers:

1- Ibn Muqla (886–940) introduced groundbreaking principles of proportion and aesthetics to the art, elevating it beyond mere utility.

2- Ibn al-Bawwab (believed to have lived from 961–1022) pushed the boundaries of script and composition, further enhancing the art’s visual appeal and complexity.

Two folios of the Quran, written by Ibn al-Bawwab in 1001 CE. The original copy is preserved in Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (Credit: Chester Beatty Library, Dublin)

A folio from the Quran written by Ibn al-Bawwab (Chapter 971 Al-Qadr and Chapter 98: Al-Bayyinah) (Credit: Chester Beatty Library, Dublin)

3- Yakut al-Musta’simi of Amasya (d. 1298) left an indelible mark with his intricate and ornate calligraphic works, exemplifying the pinnacle of the craft.

A folio of the Quran, written by Yaqut al-Mustasimi, preserved in Topkapi Saray Library, Istanbul

Two folios from the Quran, written by Yaqut al-Mustasimi in 1269 CE, are preserved in Khuda Bakhsh Library, Patna, India

In this era, Arabic calligraphy transcended mere writing; it became an art form that harmoniously blended form, function, and artistic expression. It was not merely a conduit for conveying words but a source of visual beauty and cultural significance.

The “Golden Age” of Arabic calligraphy refined the art to such an extent that it continues to inspire admiration and scholarly inquiry, standing as a testament to the enduring marriage of creativity and tradition. This legacy endures in the intricate and elegant calligraphic works that grace Islamic architecture, manuscripts, and various forms of artistic expression today.

4- Arabic Calligraphy different style

Arabic calligraphy encompasses an array of script styles characterized by cursive forms, vertical extensions, and intricate geometric designs. Some scripts adopt more pronounced curves and intricate linkages between letters. Each style of Arabic calligraphy serves a distinct purpose, tailored to the specific intentions of the calligrapher.

Same sentence written in 12 different styles
(Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/321514860892971724/)

5- Examples of fusion with the Arabic Calligraphy:

Here are photos of several buildings, ceramics, weapons, and artefacts adorned with Arabic calligraphy. They come in various forms and styles, usually designed to convey moral messages through Quranic verses.

Facade of Mohamad Ben Khairoun El Maarefi’s Masjed in Kairouan – Tunisia With Kufi Script (Photo: Issam Barhoumi)

Calligraphic mosaic, Iran
(Source : https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/83654/view/calligraphic-mosaic-iran)

Ottoman Sword By Ahmad Al Khurasani with Arabic calligraphy, exhibited at IAMM (Photo: Emna Esseghir)

Aceh plate with Arabic calligraphy exhibited at Islamic Arts Museum, Malaysia
(Photo: Emna Esseghir)

Tiles with Quran verses exhibited at Bardo Musuem Tunisia
(Photo: Mohamed Yazid Ben Abdessalem)

The Kaaba’s gold laced cover
(Photo: Sami Mansour)

The calligraphic inscription between the zigzag designs and medallion reads: Blessings to Allah and praise be to Him, Blessed be Allah the Great, Oh, Lord who give us riches, There is no God but Allah and Prophet Muhammad is the Messenger, Surah al-Baqarah (2:144), and Oh, Sultan.

Red vest with verses displayed in Gallery B, Muzium Negara
(Photo: Emna Esseghir)

*woodcarving is influenced by the moral ethical values with Quranic verses:

Wood carved plates, Gallery B Muzium Negara
(Photo: Emna Esseghir)

Persian or Iranian Brass Islamic Magic Bowl, Gallery B, Muzium Negara
(Photo: Emna Esseghir)

References

1. Blue Quran: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Quran
2. THE MUQADDIMAH by Abd Ar Rahman bin Muhammed ibn Khaldun: https://delong.typepad.com/files/muquaddimah.pdf
3. Arabic calligraphy: knowledge, skills and practices: https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/arabic-calligraphy-knowledge-skills-and-practices-01718#:~:text=Arabic%20calligraphy%20is%20the%20artistic,cursive%2C%20from%20right%20to%20left
4. A Brief History of Arabic Calligraphy: https://www.skillshare.com/en/blog/a-brief-history-of-arabic-calligraphy/
   https://www.metmuseum.org/learn/educators/curriculum-resources/art-of-the-islamic-world/unit-two/origins-and-characteristics-of-the-arabic-alphabet
5. Ibn Muqla: https://artcalligraphy.net/en/ibn-muqla/
6. Ibn Muqla: The prophet of Arabic Calligraphy by Md. Monirul Islam: https://ocd.lcwu.edu.pk/cfiles/Arabic/Min/FA-101/IbneMakla.pdf
7. Hasan Celebi, Turkey’s Master Calligrapher by Professor A. R. MOMIN: https://www.iosminaret.org/vol-8/issue21/Hasan_Celebi.php
8. Arabic Calligraphy Styles: https://www.arabic-calligraphy.com/arabic-calligraphy-styles/
9. Some Islamic Artefacts at Muzium Negara: https://museumvolunteersjmm.com/2020/04/01/some-islamic-artefacts-at-muzium-negara/

By Emna Esseghir

An eight-pointed star-shaped tile.
Image source: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/444459

Introduction

Stars have perpetually held a captivating allure for humanity, drawing us into realms of scientific fascination, artistic ingenuity, and profound spiritual significance. These celestial entities have not merely fueled our scientific explorations, revealing their diverse classifications and intricate life cycles, but have also ignited the creative flames of art, poetry, and mythology, enduring as timeless symbols of hope and beauty.

In the realm of religion, stars occupy a revered position across various faiths and cultures, embodying divine manifestations, celestial emblems, and sources of spiritual guidance. Beyond these multifaceted dimensions, stars serve as a unifying thread that transcends both time and cultural boundaries, binding us together through our insatiable curiosity, our enduring spiritual connection to the cosmos, and our collective awe at the enigmatic mysteries of the universe.

In this article, I will delve deeper into the study of the eight-pointed star, a compelling exemplar of how celestial objects like stars can carry profound significance for humanity, owing to their rich history of symbolism across diverse cultures and religions.

What’s an eight-pointed star?

In geometry, an 8-pointed star is a geometric shape formed by the intersection of two squares, typically with one square rotated at a 45-degree angle relative to the other. It features eight distinct points or vertices radiating outward from a central point. The resulting figure often resembles an octagonal star and is commonly referred to as an octagram. This shape exhibits symmetry and can be constructed using various geometric methods.

The regular octagram is characterized by equal-length sides and angles, lending it a balanced and uniform appearance. It can also exhibit different variations.

Different variations of 8-pointed star.
Image source: https://www.outofstress.com/8-pointed-star-meanings/

Meanings and origins of the 8-pointed star

Its octagonal structure serves as a distinctive emblem, signifying both protective qualities and guidance, owing to its direct alignment with the eight cardinal directions. Moreover, this celestial symbol maintains a profound connection with the number 8, a universally recognized symbol of significance and good fortune across diverse cultural landscapes. Furthermore, the star’s octagonal shape has been associated with the eight phases of human spiritual growth.

Consequently, the 8-pointed star emerges as an exceptionally versatile symbol, possessing multifaceted applications encompassing realms such as spiritual healing, the facilitation of manifestation, and the attraction of positive energies.

The 8-pointed star holds immense cultural and religious significance across various historical contexts. It symbolizes celestial entities like the moon, sun, planets, stars, and comets. Its origins trace back to ancient Mesopotamia, particularly Babylon, where it was closely associated with the goddess Ishtar. Ishtar held sway over domains such as love, fertility, and warfare, and she bore a connection to the planet Venus, often referred to as the Morning Star.

Depiction of the star of Ishtar (Image source: Jastrow via Wikipedia)

The eight-pointed star’s significance is not confined to a single cultural sphere, but rather extends its influence across diverse global civilizations. For instance, among Canada’s indigenous peoples, the eight-pointed star serves as a representation of the sun radiating its brilliance in all directions. Furthermore, several formerly Soviet republics, upon gaining independence, incorporated the eight-pointed star into their national flags, symbolizing the sun, as exemplified by the flag of Azerbaijan.

The flag of Azerbaijan (Image source: Wikipedia)

The 8-pointed star holds a prominent position within Islamic art and architecture. Emma Clark, as detailed in her book “The Art of the Islamic Garden,” elucidates that this symbol signifies God’s Throne. This symbolism is rooted in a Quranic verse that prophesies the presence of 8 angels flanking God’s Throne on the Day of Judgment, correlating with the 8 points of the star. Remarkably, upon the Throne, an inscription reads, “My Mercy Supercedes My Wrath,” instilling a profound sense of hope in God’s boundless mercy and the prospect of salvation.

“And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight [of them]”

SURAH AL-HAQQAH AYAT 17 (69:17 QURAN)

This numerical symbolism extends to the architectural layouts of various mosques, with notable examples including the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock with Najmat al Kods, traditionally believed to occupy the site of Solomon’s Temple.

The Rub-el-Hzib and the more floral Najmat-al-Quds

(Image source: https://farbound.net/najmat-al-quds-star-of-jerusalem-humayuns-mausoleum-nizzamuddin-east/)

Also, its predecessor, the symbol Rub El Hizb, characterized by two intersecting squares enclosing a central circle, holds particular significance within the Islamic context: in Arabic, the expression “Rub El Hizb” signifies an object or concept divided into quarters, visually reflected in the symbol itself, where two squares have their edges divided into segments.

Historically, Muslims employed the Rub El Hizb as a tool for the recitation and memorization of the Quran. The symbol serves to represent each quarter of a “Hizb,” which designates a distinct section within the holy Quran.

Rub El Hezb Symbole (Image source : LACMA/Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain)

In the world of Central Asian art and culture, the eight-pointed star enjoys prominence in numerous blue ceramic mosaics, exemplifying its enduring cultural appeal.

Within Christian sacred art, the eight-pointed Star of Bethlehem plays a pivotal role, guiding the three wise men to the birthplace of Christ and symbolizing the nativity of Christ and the redemption he offers to humanity.

Adoration of the Magi by Florentine painter Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337).

The Star of Bethlehem is shown as a comet above the child. 
(Image source: Hohum via Wikipedia)

In Hinduism, the Ashtha Lakshmi, also known as the star of Lakshmi, is a symbol made of two squares placed on top of each other at a 45-degree angle. This symbol represents the eight different forms of the goddess Lakshmi. Lakshmi is highly regarded as the goddess of fortune, wealth, and abundance.

This symbol is widely recognized and appreciated for its simplicity and is shared among various religions and civilizations around the world.

The initial emergence of the eight-pointed star in Islamic symbolism

Built between 687 and 691 A.D. during the rule of Arab Caliphs Abd-al-Malik and Al Walid I of the Umayyad dynasty, the Dome of the Rock stands as a significant achievement in Islamic architecture. It also served as an educational hub for Arabian architects and artists.

Inspired by Sassanid Persians, the Arabs embraced features like grand arches, ornate ornamentation, and Persian-style gardens. They also learned from the Byzantines how to construct large domes on tall drums, a technique seen in later Islamic structures worldwide, including the mausoleum of Humayun in Hindustan and the Taj Mahal.

The Dome of the Rock.
(Image source: Andrew Shiva via Wikipedia | CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Dome of the Rock took cues from early Roman-Byzantine structures with an octagonal floor plan, a fusion of circle and square. It was crafted by Byzantine Christian artisans following Islamic guidelines, fostering the exchange of construction techniques, interior design, and a passion for mathematics, especially geometry, among the Muslim Arab community.

Inside, the shrine featured intricate marble works, glass mosaics, and Arabic calligraphy. The eight-pointed star emerged as a symbol, blending into the decor and architectural design.

The most famous eight-pointed star in Malaysia

At the outset, the twin towers were conceived with a modest height of 1400 feet (427m) in mind. However, it was the vision and determination of Dr. Mahathir that transformed them into a global architectural marvel. He saw the potential for these towers to not only be significant structures but also iconic symbols of Malaysia’s ambition and identity on the world stage.

The design of Petronas tower.
(Image source: https://www.petronastwintowers.com.my/)

The PETRONAS Towers’ connection to Islamic symbolism is strikingly evident in their design, which forms an eight-pointed star when viewed from above. This architectural choice holds profound cultural and symbolic significance in Islamic tradition. The eight-pointed star symbolizes unity, harmony, and stability, reflecting the principles of balance and togetherness. Islamic art and geometric patterns heavily influence the towers’ aesthetics.

This incorporation of Islamic symbolism and aesthetics is a testament to the architects cultural sensitivity, acknowledging Malaysia’s Islamic heritage while simultaneously projecting the nation’s modernity and ambition on the global stage. The PETRONAS Towers stand not only as architectural marvels but also as iconic representations of Malaysia’s rich cultural tapestry and its its harmonious blend of tradition and progress.

References

1. Eight Pointed Star Rug Design: https://nazmiyalantiquerugs.com/area-rug-guide/motifs-symbols/eight-pointed-stars-rug-design-motif/#:~:text=Christianity%3A%20In%20Christianity%2C%20the%208,the%20birth%20of%20Jesus%20Christ.
2. Giotto – Scrovegni – -18- – Adoration of the Magi: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-18-_-_Adoration_of_the_Magi.jpg?uselang=en#Licensing
3. Juz’ 1 of the Quran : https://www.learnreligions.com/juz-1-of-the-quran-2004552
4. Learn About the Meaning of an Eight Pointed Star : https://mythologian.net/learn-about-the-meaning-of-an-eight-pointed-star/#:~:text=The%20eight%2Dpointed%20star%20represents,Hope%20symbol%20as%20Star%20Knowledge.
5. PETRONAS Twin Towers: https://www.petronastwintowers.com.my/
6. Rub el Hizb : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rub_el_Hizb
7. Star of David : https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304113265_Star_of_David
8. Symbolic attribute of the eight-pointed star and its relation to Imam Reza (AS) based on the numbers science (abjad) : https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_111923.html?lang=en
9. The star that is a landmark in Islamic architecture. : https://farbound.net/najmat-al-quds-star-of-jerusalem-humayuns-mausoleum-nizzamuddin-east/
10. What You Should Know About Octagrams – Eight-Pointed Stars : https://www.learnreligions.com/octagrams-eight-pointed-stars-96015