Author: Museum Volunteers, JMM

MV Focus Talk with Emna Esseghir

Written by Noriko Nishizawa 

_{Zitouna mosque in Tunisia with full moon view (photo : http://www.tunisi.info)}

On the eve of Ramadan 2024, our fellow museum volunteer, Emna Esseghir, gave us a very insightful talk about Ramadan. Emna hails from Tunis, Tunisia, and has been residing in Malaysia for the past six years. She has been a passionate volunteer guide at Muzium Negara since 2023. We affectionately refer to her as our Tunisian ambassador to Malaysia, as she has generously shared her knowledge of Tunisia and its culture with us. Her presentation provided a unique perspective on Islam, encompassing not only Tunisia and Malaysia but also offering a cross-cultural examination of Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr traditions and practices.

_{Emna Esseghir (photos: Noriko Nishizawa)}

Brief History of Islam

It is believed that Islam started in 610 CE when 40-year-old Muhammad, who was born in Mecca in western Arabia, received his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. The night Gabriel appeared to him in a cave during a retreat is called the Night of Power/Destiny (Laylat al-Qadr).

Gabriel said to Muhammad, “Read in the name of your Lord…” until he learned the words by heart. The messages from Gabriel continued for the rest of his life, and these revelations were subsequently collected and codified as the Qur’an (literally “to read/recite” in Arabic), the Muslim holy book. The essence of Gabriel’s messages was simple: it affirmed the existence of one god, Allah, and declared that Muhammad was his appointed messenger. The messages also provided guidelines for proper behavior within the framework of a just and equitable society. Around that time, Mecca, the religious center, was a prosperous city, and the Kaaba, then a shrine and a place of pilgrimage housing the pagan deities, was worshipped by the Arabs. The Prophet Muhammad’s messages weren’t well received among the leaders of Mecca. In the face of opposition and persecution in Mecca, Muhammad and his followers emigrated north to another oasis town, Medina (Yathrib) in 622. This event, referred to as Hijrah/Hegira, proved to be a turning point for Islam because it marks the formation of the first community of Muslims. Muhammad continued to attract followers in Medina and also to fight off attacks against him and the faith with his army. Within a few years, Mecca largely embraced Islam as well, and the first thing Muhammad did upon his return to Mecca was to remove idols and rededicate the Kaaba to Allah. The Kaaba, which is a stone building, has become Islam’s holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram, and no matter where they are, Muslims always face in the direction of the Kaaba for prayer.

_{Leave from the Blue Qu’ran and The Spread of Islam at IAMM (photo: Noriko Nishizawa)}

Muhammad died in 632, and the following 30-year period is called the Rashidun (rightly guided) Caliphate, led by a series of four caliphs. A caliph (a successor) is a representative of the Prophet who governs the Muslim community, both politically and religiously in the early period, and a caliphate is a political community governed by a caliph. First, Abū Bakr, who was Muhammad’s father-in-law and a close associate, was elected as the first caliph and then followed by Umar, Uthamān, and Alī. Under their commands, the Arab armies expanded the new faith and leadership in the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. They then conquered Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from the Byzantine Empire, and Iraq and Iran from the Sasanian Empire. The next caliphate, the Umayyad, conquered territory from Spain and Portugal all the way to India and Pakistan by the end of 750. The Ayyubid Caliphate became the largest and most powerful empire in the world by developing a religious, political, and cultural commonwealth. Interestingly, the conversion to Islam in the early period was quite slow because the expansion of the empires happened so fast. On the other hand, the spread of Islam in regions where Muslims are quite numerous today, like Indonesia, Malaysia, and sub-Saharan Africa, happened between the 13th and the 15th centuries quite quickly, through merchants and religious scholars.

_{(Source: Wikimedia.org, this file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license)}

Emna showed us this map: Map of the Muslim World With the Main Madhhabs. She emphasized that as of 2020, there were 1.8 billion people, more than 25% of the world’s population, who practiced Islam, and Muslims were not only in Arab countries but also everywhere. Then she touched on the two main branches of Islam and some madhhabs/mazahib, referring to Islamic schools of thought. Sunni and Shia/Shīʿa are the two main branches of Islam, and around 85% of the Muslim population are Sunnis, with 15% being Shias (source: the Council on Foreign Relations). While Shias are concentrated mainly in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon, Sunnis are the majority in more than 40 other countries. These two sects within Islam share most of the fundamental beliefs and practices of the religion, but they differ in doctrine, law, ritual, and religious organization.

The roots of the Sunni-Shia division can be traced back to the seventh century, soon after the death of Muhammad. Shias believe that Muhammad publicly designated Alī, his cousin and son-in-law, as the first in line of hereditary Imams (“leaders” in Arabic) from his family, whereas Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not explicitly declare a successor. Sunnis viewed the caliphs as both religious and political leaders in the early period. Over time, the caliphs functioned as political rulers, while the scholars (Ulamā/Ulema) were considered religious authorities and interpreters. For Sunnis, Imam is most commonly used as the title for a prayer leader at a mosque. In contrast, for most Shias, Imams are absolute leaders of the Islamic communities, since they believe that Imams should be spiritual descendants of Muhammad and are responsible for interpreting the faith, as well as improving the quality of their lives.

_{(Source: Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey by Adam Kliczek, http://memoriesstay.com)}

Madhhab means ‘a way’, and it is a method of interpreting the religion that binds a group or school of scholars together. Today, there are four major Sunni madhhabs: Hanafī, Hanbalī, Mālikī, and Shafi’i. For example, Tunisia is mostly Mālikī and Malaysia is Shafi’i. According to Emna, we don’t really see differences between Mālikī and Shafi’i in our daily life, but Mālikī, also called the ‘school of Medina’, could be a little more flexible in terms of customs and traditions compared to other Sunni madhhabs.

Understanding Ramadan: What You Need to Know About Ramadan

Overall:

(1) The term “Ramaḍān (رَمَضَان)” originates from an Arabic root denoting “extreme heat” or “dryness”. 

(2) Ramadan is the ninth month in the Islamic calendar and is considered one of the holiest months because it is devoted to fasting, one of the Five Pillars of Islam which are the core beliefs and practices of Islam.

(3) Ramadan existed before Islam.  Ramadan is said to have been an important and holy month for the Arabs long before Muhammad introduced Islam.  They stopped fighting and tried to meditate at temples and caves during that time.  Muslims believe that the Night of Power happened during Ramadan.

The Islamic Calendar/The Hijri Calendar:

(4) The Islamic calendar plays an important role in the life of Muslims as it specifies the time for Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, Hajj, etc.  Little is known about the pre-Islamic calendar; however, some historians maintain that it was similar to the modern Islamic calendar.  Although Arabs were already using the calendar based on lunar months, they didn’t have a specific number or term to register the year, and it became quite confusing.  As a result, the second caliph, Umar, introduced the new calendar in 639.  The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and the Hijrah in 622 marks the beginning of the calendar.  It symbolises the Muslim’s journey to fulfill all the Five Pillars of Islam: renewing the faith constantly, performing prayers, paying annual Zakat (a financial obligation to donate to charitable causes), fasting in Ramadan, and fulfilling the Hajj (a once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage made to the Kaaba).

Fasting

(5) Fasting was already a common religious practice among the pre-Islamic Arabs, and they used to fast on Āshūrā (the tenth day of Muharram) to observe the day God parted the Red Sea to allow Moses and his people to escape Egypt.  Muhammad also used to fast on Ashura.  Actually, Ashura has become an important mourning day for Shias, because it was the day Imam Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, was martyred in the battle.  Even today many people still fast on Ashura.  As for the fasting during Ramadan, it is believed that Muhammad received a revelation regarding Sawn (fasting) from the angel Gabriel two years after Hijrah, and then he established fasting as one of the holy month’s (Ramadan) practices.

(6) Food and drink aren’t the only things Muslims have to abstain from.  There are other activities they also cannot participate in to cleanse their mind and soul. Fasting is obligatory for all Muslims who have reached the age of puberty, who are of sound mind, and who have good health.  However, those who are in pre-puberty, old and frail, sick, pregnant, breastfeeding, menstruating or travelling are excused, but there are other requirements they must abide by.

(7) Sunni and Shia practice fasting slightly differently.  Sunnis break their fast as soon as the prayer (maghrib) starts as the sun is no longer visible on the horizon.  Whereas Shias wait until the end of the prayer which  starts when the last ray of light vanishes and the sky becomes totally dark.

(8) Fasting is an act of worship bringing one closer to God, as well as a form of spiritual discipline and a means to empathize with those less fortunate. 

How to Observe Ramadan:

(9) Ramadan begins 10-12 days earlier each year because the Islamic calendar year is shorter than the Gregorian calendar, allowing it to fall in every season throughout a 33-year cycle.  The Islamic calendar follows the literal cycles of the moon, and each month of the calendar begins with the sighting of the early crescent moon.  Telescopes as well as astronomical calculations and technology are used to establish the moon’s appearance.  Consequently, the exact start of Ramadan is not confirmed until the day before, although an approximate start date is calculated in advance.  Also the exact timing varies from country to country, depending on when local Islamic authorities in each country declare the sighting of the new moon.  It is the same for the end of Ramadan.  Emna told us that in Tunisia’s case, the country still sent out someone in each state to a higher place to sight the moon.  It would be good enough to start Ramadan if even one of them (24 states) spots the moon.

(10) Ramadan is not all about fasting.  Some of the special practices during Ramadan include eating a special pre-dawn meal called suhoor/suḥūr before starting the daily fast at dawn, and then eating another meal called Ifṭār to break the fast at sunset.  During Ramadan Muslims also take part in extra worship such as Tarāwīḥ/Taraweehprayers (night prayers) observed by Sunnis in addition to the five daily prayers: Fajr (dawn), Zuhr (afternoon), Asr (late afternoon), Maghrib (after sunset), and Isha (night time).  Also, towards the end of Ramadan, many Muslims make a special charitable donation which goes to the less fortunate.

(11) The Night of Power is one of the most sacred nights in the Islamic calendar, and it is believed to be a night of great reward and significance.  This night falls within Ramadan’s last 10 days.  Although it commonly considered as the 27^th night, the exact date is unknown.  As a result, Muslims are encouraged to intensify worship and devotion during the last 10 nights of Ramadan, especially during the odd nights (21^st, 23^rd, 25^th, 27^th, and 29^th ).

Ramadan Customs and Traditions:

(12) It is customary for many Muslims to break their daily fast and celebrate Eid al-Fitr by eating dates.  Of course, dates grow in many Muslim countries and are quite nutritious.  This custom goes back to the beginning of Ramadan, as it is said that Muhammad ate dates to break his fast.  

(13) The Ramadan drummers called Musaherati are one of the most important markers of Ramadan.  Every year these volunteer drummers would roam the streets in their neighborhoods an hour before dawn to wake up people to have suhoor, by drumming, calling out people’s names, and even reciting poems.  In the Ottoman and Andalusia cultures, the drummers even competed to claim who was the best!  Musaherati is another tradition that almost disappeared in most cities.  

(14) The adhān/azan (“announcement” in Arabic) is the Islamic call to prayer, usually recited by a muezzin who chants from a minaret five times a day.  It is not Ramadan specific, but it is important particularly during Ramadan because people wait for maghrib to break their daily fast.  According to Emna, although the call to prayer in each country sounds quite different, the words spoken in prayer are the same or very similar.  The most notable difference in wording are the slight variations between Sunni and Shia.  The beauty of the adhan lies in its melody – the rhythm and tone of the words captivate the listeners and make each adhan sound different.  The adhan was developed during the Ottoman Empire as a creative way for listeners to be able to tell the time of prayer just by hearing the tone of the adhan.

Eid al-Fitr:

(15) Eid al-Fitr known as the “festival of breaking the fast” marks the end of Ramadan and is celebrated during the first three days of Shawwāl, the 10^th month of the Islamic calendar.  On the first day, people attend a special communal prayer at mosques during the day and then enjoy a feast with families and friends.

Emna shared many of her own personal experiences of Ramadan and described how festive Tunis was during this special time.  All the shops and restaurants were open throughout the night, and there were many concerts as well.  She said Cairo was even more festive than Tunis!  

Emna enjoyed her mother’s cooking, and during Ramadan her mother made special dishes.  Her mother also prepared a lot of food to share with other people, especially those in need.  In Tunis, sometimes cannons were used for the call to prayer.  We could still experience all of them today.  

Emna concluded her talk emphasizing that Ramadan was not just about fasting, but was rather a time to help each other share joy.

References:

Suzan Yalman, The Birth of Islam https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isla/hd_isla.htm

Introduction to Islam, Khan Academy https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/medieval-times/spread-of-islam

Sarah Pruitt,  Islam’s Sunni-Shia Divide, Explained https://www.history.com/news/sunni-shia-divide-islam-muslim

Ramadan, Britannica  https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan

Indlieb Farazi Saber, The art of the adhan: The multiple melodies of the Muslim call to prayer https://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/adhan-muslim-call-prayer-melodies-maqams

UstazMuhammad Abdul Mateen Bin Hisham, 4 Intriguing Things You May Not Know About the Islamic Hijri Calendar https://muslim.sg/articles/4-intriguing-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-islamic-hijri-calendar

Dima Al-Sharif, AL Musaherati Tradition https://www.dimasharif.com/musaherati-ramadan-drummers/#:~:text=While%20during%20those%20days%20the,created%20specifically%20for%20the%20occasion.

Focus Talk with Professor Dr. Masatoshi Sone

Written by Manjeet Dhillon

Introduction: Unveiling Lost Diversity in Borneo

At the MV Focus Talk series, the subject of the day was ‘Lost Diversity of Sundaic Borneo: New Findings from Sarawak.’ Our speaker was Dr. Masatoshi Sone, who shared insightful findings from his recent expedition where he spent a good ten days in the coal fields of Ulu Rajang looking for fossils. The talk began with an exploration of Sundaland, the name of the ancient continent that once included Borneo, Peninsula Malaysia, Sumatra, and Jawa Island. Geologically, Kuala Lumpur is situated in the heart of this vast continent.

Sundaland: A Fragmented Ancient Continent

About 11,000 years ago, this was one big piece of land. As sea levels rose, Borneo became separated from mainland Asia and other islands.  The Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russell Wallace, a British naturalist who explored the region over a century ago, marks a transition zone between the distinct fauna of Asia and Australasia. This imaginary line runs from the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok in the south, all the way up through the Makassar Strait between Kalimantan (Borneo) and Sulawesi in the north.  The islands on one side, like Sumatra, are mostly volcanic within a subduction zone with tectonic plates. This goes all the way to the east, including the Komodo islands, Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea, and Australia.

Plate 1: Wallace’s Line

Following Wallace’s Lead: Biogeography and Island Evolution

During his expeditions, Alfred Wallace, a naturalist with a keen eye for geology, noticed a peculiar phenomenon. Many animals, including birds of the same species, were present in Sumatra but seemed to disappear as you moved towards Lombok and the regions west of it. Wallace identified a significant biogeographic boundary between Bali and Lombok. Surprisingly, this invisible line had a profound impact on the distribution of various bird species. Many birds, it appeared, were reluctant to cross even the narrowest stretches of open ocean water. Essentially, Wallace believed that species change over time so they could fit into new environments.

This led Wallace to observe that in Bali, you’d find thrushes, woodpeckers, barbets, trogons, paradise flycatchers, paradise shrikes, minivets, blue drongos, pheasants, and jungle fowl, but colourful exotic birds were a rare sight. In contrast, in Sulawesi, Papua, and Timor, parrots, cockatoos, and lories were abundant.

The Wallace Line extends further between Borneo and Sulawesi, although this boundary is not visible to the human eye. However, animals seem to sense or perceive this invisible division. It’s important to note that Wallace’s discoveries were primarily based on biological observations (where he spent many years obtaining samples of birds, insects and animals) rather than in-depth geological knowledge of the islands. His research led him to a conclusion: animals evolve by adapting to their specific environments rather than by migrating to new ones.

Fueled by a passion to understand how new species arise, Wallace joined an Amazon expedition in 1848 (with Henry Bates). Sadly, a shipwreck in 1852 claimed most of their collected specimens. Undeterred, Wallace embarked on a groundbreaking Southeast Asian voyage (1854) that spanned eight years. His meticulous collection efforts yielded a staggering 125,000 specimens, including the iconic flying frog, and significantly advanced our understanding of the natural world.

A Glimpse into Earth’s Geological Timeline

Next ,we looked into the Earth’s geological timeline, which spans an immense 4.6 billion years. A particularly noteworthy period within this timeline is the Cenozoic era, which commenced approximately 66 million years ago. During this era, we witnessed the emergence of mammals and birds, along with the gradual evolution of primates and early hominids.

In the midst of the Cenozoic era (at the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods), a large meteorite crashed into our planet, specifically in the  area of the Caribbean Sea. This catastrophic impact spelled doom for the dinosaurs and many other species, opening the door for mammals to flourish and diversify.

As we consider Earth’s geological timeline, we find a key division between the Quaternary and Tertiary eras. This shift hinges on the transition from the Tertiary period, encompassing epochs like the Pliocene and earlier, to the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs of the Quaternary. This change mirrors significant shifts in climate, marked by a warming trend and rising sea levels. It’s also notable for the emergence of Homo sapiens, making it a pivotal juncture in our planet’s history.

Furthermore, the shift from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epochs indicates a transition from the last ice age, characterised by glaciers atop Mount Kinabalu. Interestingly, this transition aligns with Earth’s broader climatic cycle, suggesting that we’re gradually heading towards the next ice age in the grand scheme of geological time.

Plate 2: Geological Time Scale

Fossil Fuels: A Legacy of the Cenozoic Era in Malaysia

In the context of Malaysian geology, the Cenozoic period takes on paramount importance. This geological era witnessed the formation of numerous oil and gas (hydrocarbon) resources within the country. Throughout this time, a series of geological processes transpired, which included the accumulation of organic material and the creation of suitable conditions for the development of oil and gas reservoirs.

These developments have solidified Malaysia’s standing as one of the key regions for oil and gas production in Southeast Asia. Notably, substantial reserves can be found both onshore and offshore, underlining the nation’s significance in the oil and gas industry.

Borneo: From Sundaland to Fragmented Islands

Before the end of the ice age, Southeast Asia was part of a landmass known as Sundaland. This area connected many of today’s islands (Peninsula Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo but also Java, Bali, parts of the Malay Peninsula, and other smaller islands in the region) into a single landmass due to lower sea levels caused by the extensive ice sheets.

As the Ice Age concluded, the rising sea levels, about 110 metres higher, submerged much of Sundaland, including the lowlands between the elevated regions of Peninsula Malaysia, Sumatra, Jawa, and Borneo. This flooding led to the formation of rivers like the Chao Phraya, Pahang, Pekan, Kuching, and Rajang rivers, which were previously part of the terrestrial landscape.

Sarawak’s Caves: A Treasure Trove for Prehistory

Looking at Sarawak, we have some famous caves such as Niah cave, and also Mulu. The caves in this region have been of interest to palaeontologists due to the discovery of prehistoric fossils and archaeological artefacts. These findings have contributed to our understanding of the region’s prehistoric past.

In archaeology,  the Niah caves (Sarawak – discovery of skulls in 1958) and Madai caves (eastern Sabah), contain remains of prehistoric human activity, where Niah is famous with coffins together with animal remains, These caves also hold animal remains alongside human artefacts, otherwise for most of Sarawak there is no paleontological record. Evidence suggests human activity in the area began around 30,000 years ago. Fossils, including those of tigers and tapirs, have also been found. Notably, these animals are no longer present in Borneo, having disappeared naturally before human arrival.

The third largest city in Sarawak is Sibu, where we can journey along the Rajang River (longest river in Malaysia) to Kapit, a town located inland along the river. The Rajang river also flows in the general direction towards the largest dam in Malaysia, the Bakun Dam which is located on the Balui River (a tributary of the Rajang River).  Here we now have two smaller rivers or tributaries merging with the Rajang River in Kapit, then continuing downstream towards the river’s estuary, where it meets the South China Sea. This is where the fresh water from the river mixes with the saltwater of the sea. 

Plate 3: Rajang river basin

Unearthing Borneo’s Past: The Rajang River and Fossil Discoveries

The Rajang River’s characteristics stand out in contrast to typical slow-flowing and meandering rivers in Malaysia, where it is a straight course and fast flowing. This might be because it originates in or flows through areas with steeper terrain, where the river descends more rapidly. As it approaches Sibu, the river transforms into smaller channels, creating a delta structure. This delta is the product of sediment deposits and the river’s interactions with the sea. It provides a favourable environment for a notable population of large crocodiles, making Sibu their known habitat.

Here at this delta, many fossil remains have been discovered such as spines, fins or ribs of fish. Fossils are often found in black or brown hues, indicating they have undergone the fossilisation process including phosphatisation.

Island Endemism: The Case of the Bornean Banteng

Fascinating fossil discoveries in Sabah include the premolars of the Banteng or Tembadau in Malay (species: bos javanicus), a wild cow species, which we understand has been here before humans and during Sundaic time as well. Bornean bantengs are smaller due to a phenomenon called “insular dwarfism” or “miniaturisation.”, where island-dwelling mammals tend to evolve smaller body sizes over time (same applies for African elephants and Asian elephants). This phenomenon is a remarkable example of how isolated island environments can influence the evolution of species, leading to unique adaptations and characteristics. The Banteng is facing a gradual decline in Sarawak and is on the brink of extinction in Malaysia. Currently, Cambodia hosts the largest population, followed by Australia. It’s important to note that these populations in Cambodia and Australia are not native but were introduced by humans.

Plate 4: Banteng (wild cow)

Echoes of the Past: Fossil Tapirs and Their Relatives

Fossils of tapirs, identified as a type of metatarsal belonging to the extinct Tapirus sp., have been found in the Niah and Madai Caves. However, these tapirs are not directly ancestral to the present-day Malayan tapir. While they may have shared similar black and white stripes, these extinct tapirs inspired legends of a mythical creature that came through China and could eat our trees.

There are four species (four genus) of Tapirs in the world:

• Lowland Tapir (Tapirus terrestris)
• Baird’s Tapir (Tapirus bairdii)
• Mountain Tapir (Tapirus pinchaque)
• Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus)

Plate 5: Tapir

Today’s DNA studies confirm the Malayan tapir as the sole surviving Asian tapir species, with its closest relative being the American tapir.  Evidence suggests tapirs originated in Eurasia, where they are now extinct.  The split between Malayan and American tapirs likely occurred around 25 million years ago, predating the most recent ice age.  This time frame coincides with periods of lower sea levels that exposed land bridges, allowing many mammal migrations  like horses, sheep, and even some Asian monkeys to move from Eurasia to North America and eventually South America.  While the tapir story might not directly involve the most recent ice bridge, it highlights how continental movements and changing sea levels have shaped the distribution of animals throughout history.

Extinct Tapir Diversity and Zooarchaeology

While the Malayan tapir is the only survivor in Asia, evidence suggests a greater diversity of tapirs once existed. A striking example comes from the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave in East Kalimantan, Borneo. This prehistoric limestone cave, dating back to the Pleistocene epoch, features a large reddish-orange figurative cave drawing of animals. These depictions, alongside fossil remains like those of tigers now absent from Borneo, highlight the valuable role of zooarchaeology in reconstructing past ecosystems. By studying animal remains and artistic representations, we can gain insights into species that no longer roam these regions.

Plate 6: Cave drawing at Lubang Jeriji Saléh, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo

Uncertain Fossil Identity and Regional Rhino Extinction

Some fossils unearthed in East Malaysia reveal animal hooves that could belong to either tapirs or rhinoceroses. Unfortunately, differentiating between them solely based on hoof characteristics is challenging. Sadly, rhinoceroses are already regionally extinct in East Malaysia. The last recorded Sumatran rhinoceros in Sabah died in 2015, prompting the government to declare its local extinction. However, there’s a glimmer of hope.  A small population of 10 to 20 individuals was discovered in East Kalimantan in 2016, highlighting the importance of conservation efforts for this critically endangered species.

Fossil Evidence of Sea Cows (Sirenia) in Sarawak

Aquatic mammal fossils, identified as sea cows (Sirenia) or dugongs, have also been unearthed in Sarawak.  These gentle giants, related to manatees found in Central America and the Caribbean, once thrived in the coastal regions.  They fed primarily on seaweeds.  Sadly, sea cows are now locally extinct in Sarawak.

One key characteristic that aids in identifying Sirenia fossils is their density.  Due to their composition of calcium carbonate, these bones are significantly heavier than most other animal remains.  This weight factor alerted Dr. Sone’s team to the possibility of a Sirenia fossil upon discovery.

The Enigma of the Tambun Cave Dugong

The Tambun limestone cave in Ipoh boasts archaeological paintings, estimated to be around 5,000 years old, featuring an image resembling a dugong. This poses a fascinating puzzle considering the significant distance between the current coastline and the cave’s inland location. Further research, potentially involving geological studies and a deeper analysis of the cave paintings, might shed light on this intriguing mystery.

Plate 7: Tambun (Ipoh) cave painting: dugong

The Story of the Suidae Family and the Bearded Pig

The Suidae family, encompassing wild pigs and boars, boasts a global distribution across Eurasia, North Africa, and the Greater Sunda Islands.  Evidence suggests their origin lies in Southeast Asia during the Pleistocene epoch (1.4 million to 11,000 years ago).  From this ancestral homeland, they likely migrated outwards into other parts of Eurasia.

Wild Pigs of Borneo: Bearded Natives and Introduced Relatives

Borneo boasts two distinct wild pig species, both belonging to the genus Sus. The first, and likely more familiar, is the wild boar (Sus scrofa).  While not native to Borneo, this species can interbreed with domestic pigs.  The second, and truly indigenous pig, is the bearded pig (Sus barbatus).  Fossil evidence, particularly differences in molar morphology, helps differentiate these two species.

Distribution patterns paint a clear picture.  The common wild boar, also known as the Eurasian wild boar, dominates across Eurasia, with introduced populations in Australia and northern South America.  In contrast, the bearded pig reigns supreme in Borneo, with a smaller presence in Peninsular Malaysia.  Interestingly, fossils from the Niah Caves reveal no evidence of the common wild boar, only the bearded pig.  This suggests that the wild boars currently found in Borneo were likely introduced by humans.

However, there’s a twist! Fossil discoveries in central Sarawak showcase the presence of both pig species even before human arrival.  This intriguing find remains an active area of research.

Summary

Understanding Borneo’s rich biodiversity, both past and present, is crucial for informing conservation efforts and protecting this irreplaceable natural heritage. Dr. Masatoshi’s team is currently exploring fossils of a fly and plant fossils in a coal mine in Sarawak.

Reading material from MV Library

Here are some books that would likely be excellent reading material for further exploration:

1. Borneo Biodiversity: Tropical Rainforests from the Heart of Southeast Asia (ISBN 9789811073447) by Eric D. Wikramanayake, Michael D. Sorenson, and Thomas J. Conway

2. Island Biogeography: Theory and Conservation Practice (ISBN 9780691166488) by David Wright

3. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Borneo (ISBN 9789834280635) by J. Payne, C. Francis, and K. Phillipps

4. The Quaternary Period (ISBN 9780131174749) by John A. Quaternary

5. Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Volume 4. Early History by Dato’ Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman

6. The Malay Archipelago by Alfred Russell Wallace