Category: Focus and Special Events

written by Manjeet Dhillon

The surrender of British forces to the Imperial Japanese Army on 15 February 1942 was more than a military defeat, it was a shattering of colonial dominance in Southeast Asia. In his compelling talk, Zafrani Amran explores the calculated strategies, critical oversights, and unforeseen events that led to this seismic event.

Japan’s Rise to Power and Expansionist Ambitions
From the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the early 20th century, Japan transformed from a feudal society to a formidable industrial power. This modernisation fuelled its ambitions for regional dominance, culminating in its aggressive expansion across Asia. The slogan “Fukoku Kyohei” (Rich Country, Strong Army) guided the nation’s transformation.

By the late 1930s, Japan faced crippling resource shortages due to international embargoes, particularly on oil and rubber. These pressures drove its decision to secure Southeast Asia’s rich resources, making Malaya a critical target.

Key milestones in Japan’s rise include:

Japan’s Road To Conquest
Japan’s prolonged war with China drained its resources. To secure vital supplies and cut off Chinese access to foreign aid, Japan occupied French Indochina, a move facilitated by the Vichy French regime (a pro-German regime).

_{Burma road
Image source: https://www.dangerousroads.org/asia/china/321-burma-road-china.html}

Faced with a crippling U.S. oil embargo, Japan sought alternative resources in Southeast Asia, particularly the oil-rich Dutch East Indies. Despite attempts at negotiation, the Dutch, backed by the U.S., refused to meet Japan’s demands. Recognising the intransigence of the Dutch and the urgency of its resource needs, Japan concluded that military force was the only viable option. To secure these resources and neutralise potential threats, Japan launched a bold military campaign. The attack on Pearl Harbor and the invasion of Malaya were crucial steps in this strategy, by neutralising the U.S. Pacific Fleet and capturing key British military bases, Japan aimed to create a defensive perimeter in the Pacific and secure its resource supply lines.

The desire for natural resources, particularly oil, and the pursuit of a “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” propelled Japan towards a fateful confrontation with the Western powers.

Preparation for War: The Malayan Campaign
To prepare for the invasion of Malaya, the Japanese military undertook a series of strategic initiatives:

● Establishing a Research Section: The “Taiwan Army Research Section,” led by Colonel Masataro Tsuji, was established to develop specialised tactics and doctrine for jungle warfare.

● Intensive Training: The Japanese military conducted extensive training exercises in Taiwan and Hainan Island, focusing on beach landings, rapid advances, and combined arms operations in jungle terrain.

● Intelligence Gathering: A network of spies (referred to as a “fifth column), including Major Kunitake, was deployed to gather critical intelligence on Malaya’s terrain, infrastructure, and British defences.
○ Major Kunitake, stationed as an assistant Japanese consul in Singapore, identified over 250 bridges crucial for military operations, enabling the Japanese to pre-plan rapid repair efforts in the event of British sabotage.

● Developing a Comprehensive Guidebook: Colonel Tsuji’s tactical manual, aptly titled “Read This Alone, And The War Can Be Won,” (これだけ読めば戦は勝てる) equipped Japanese troops with jungle warfare expertise.

_{Book cover: “Read This Alone, And The War Can Be Won”
Image source: https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/listPhoto?LANG=default&BID=F2014120214353623900&ID=M2014120214353623902&REFCODE=C14110549200}

By meticulously planning and preparing for the invasion, the Japanese were able to exploit the weaknesses in British defences and achieve a swift victory.

 
Singapore Naval Base
The Singapore Naval Base was a monumental engineering feat and a symbol of British naval power in the Far East. Constructed over a period of nearly 15 years, the base was intended to serve as an impregnable fortress, safeguarding British interests in the region.

The decision to establish the base was driven by growing concerns about Japanese expansionism. As Japan emerged as a regional power, the British recognised the need for a strong naval presence in Southeast Asia. The base was strategically located to protect British trade routes and to deter potential aggression from Japan.

The construction of the Singapore Naval Base began in 1923, but progress was interrupted due to political changes in Britain. The Conservative Party, which initially pushed for the construction, was replaced by the Labour Party in 1924, which halted the project due to economic concerns. Work resumed, and after nearly 15 years, the base was officially opened in 1936, featuring state-of-the-art facilities, including the world’s third-largest floating dry dock. The base’s construction was funded in part by local contributions, with the Federated Malay States and the Sultan of Johore (Sultan Ibrahim Ismail) providing significant financial support. In recognition of the Sultan’s generosity, one of the coastal defence batteries was named the Johore Battery. The base was equipped with powerful coastal defences and protected by the Royal Air Force, making it a formidable fortress.

To safeguard the naval base, the British established fixed defences organised into two Fire Commands:

The Japanese devised a two-pronged strategy to circumvent Singapore’s formidable defences. Instead of a direct frontal assault, they opted for a flanking manoeuvre, attacking from the Malayan Peninsula.

A World Awakened
While the attack on Pearl Harbor (December 8, 1941) captured global attention, another battle was unfolding in Malaya. The Battle of Kota Bharu marked the beginning of Japan’s rapid advance, exploiting British vulnerabilities with surgical precision.

On the night of December 4th, the Japanese Imperial Army had set sail from Samah Harbour in Hainan Island, their destination: the Malayan Peninsula. Meanwhile, in Singapore, a sense of security prevailed. The arrival of the powerful Royal Navy battleships, Prince of Wales and Repulse, had bolstered British confidence. These formidable warships were seen as an impenetrable shield against any potential threat.

However, the Japanese had a different plan. On December 6th, Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Hudson aircraft spotted the Japanese convoy stealthily manoeuvring south of Cape Cambodia. The British were alerted, but the dense monsoon clouds provided the invading force with a veil of concealment. Operation Matador was considered. This plan involved a preemptive strike into southern Thailand to disrupt Japanese landing plans. However, the British Minister in Bangkok, Joseph Crofty, strongly advised against this course of action, fearing it would provoke a wider conflict. Operation Matador was ultimately cancelled.

The following day, December 7th, the Japanese fleet appeared on the radar screens, 110 miles north of Kota Bharu. The British, caught off guard, scrambled to respond. But the thick, impenetrable fog provided the Japanese with a crucial advantage, allowing them to close in undetected. As the fog lifted, the full scale of the Japanese invasion became apparent. The British, despite their valiant efforts, were ill-prepared to counter the swift and decisive Japanese advance.

The Battle of Kota Bharu
A lone soldier, silhouetted stark against the lightning sky, pointed a trembling hand out to sea. There, riding low in the water, a dark armada materialised from the mist. Japanese warships, led by the ominous Awajisan Maru, were disgorging a terrifying wave of soldiers into landing craft.

_{The Awazisan Maru, also known as Awajisan Maru or Awagisan Maru Image source: https://muhammadismailibrahim.wordpress.com/2011/12/08/december-8-1941-the-battle-of-kuala-pak-amat/}

The deafening roar of Japanese bombers pounded the airfields at Kota Bharu, Machang, and Gong Kedak. Explosions rocked the nearby airfield, the once-proud defenders of Kota Bharu were now a scattering of panicked men, their dreams of a valiant stand shattered by the overwhelming force of the enemy. Meanwhile, the Japanese naval escort, facing heavy losses from RAAF air attacks, considered withdrawing. However, Major General Takumi, determined to secure the beachhead, overruled the decision.

With air superiority lost and the ground defences crumbling, Brigadier Key ordered a retreat to the southern outskirts of Kota Bharu. The Japanese, under the cover of darkness, launched a final assault on the airfield, capturing it by midnight. The Dogra Regiment, though outnumbered and outgunned, fought with courage and determination. Lieutenant Close, led his men in a desperate last stand, but the relentless Japanese onslaught proved too much to bear. The fall of Kota Bharu marked the beginning of a long and painful retreat for the British forces in Malaya, a defeat that would reverberate through the annals of history.

Lone Bomber
While the Japanese 5th Division stormed the beaches of southern Thailand, another drama unfolded on the other side of the Malay Peninsula. At the battered Butterworth airfield, a lone figure emerged: Squadron Leader Arthur Stewart King Scarf. A pilot of extraordinary courage, he was the last hope for the beleaguered British forces.

As the Japanese air force rained destruction upon the airfield, Scarf defied the odds. In his battered Bristol Blenheim, he took to the skies, his mission was audacious: to strike at the heart of the Japanese invasion, targeting the enemy airfield at Singgora.

_{Blenheim of 62 Squadron and Brewster Buffalo fighters in Malaya 1941
(© RAF Museum X004- 7598/042/018)}

With enemy fighters hot on his tail, Scarf pressed on, his plane a mere speck against the vast expanse of the sky. Undeterred, he unleashed a torrent of bombs, sowing chaos among the Japanese forces. But the cost was high, his plane, riddled with bullet holes, began to falter.

Wounded and weakened, Scarf struggled to regain control. With a final act of defiance, he attempted to land at Alor Setar airfield. However, his injuries proved too severe, he succumbed to his wounds. Squadron Leader Scarf’s bravery earned him the highest military honour, the Victoria Cross.

A Self-Inflicted Wound
The morning of December 8th, 1941, dawned with a false sense of security. The mighty HMS Prince of Wales, a symbol of British naval might, sailed out of Singapore Harbor towards the South China Sea, little did they know, their fate was sealed.

Winston Churchill’s public declaration of the Prince of Wales’s mission proved to be a fatal mistake. The British Prime Minister, in a moment of hubris, had inadvertently tipped his hand to the Japanese. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the mastermind behind the attack on Pearl Harbor, seized the opportunity. He dispatched a wave of Mitsubishi G4M bombers to reinforce the already formidable air power in the region. These bombers, specially trained for ship-killing operations, were capable of launching torpedo attacks at extremely low altitudes.

The British mistook an Australian auxiliary plane for a Japanese threat, causing the Prince of Wales to turn back towards Singapore. Meanwhile, a Japanese submarine had detected the ship and dispatched its own bombers to deliver the killing blow. The Japanese attack was swift and decisive. Torpedoes tore through its hull, sending the once-mighty warship to the depths of the ocean. The sinking of the Prince of Wales and its sister ship, the battlecruiser HMS Repulse, marked a turning point in naval warfare, demonstrating the vulnerability of capital ships to air power.

_{Image source: Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Government and Politics (1940-2006), Page 22}

Battle of Jitra
Jitra, a sleepy hollow in northern Malaya, was about to become a battleground. As the Japanese juggernaut from the Seiki Detachment advanced southwards, a sense of dread settled over the British defenders.

The British plan was simple: hold the line with two brigades, the 15th Indian Brigade on the right and the 6th Indian Brigade on the left. A makeshift bunker at Changlun Timah, a roadblock hastily constructed, was meant to slow the Japanese advance. Several bridges were to be blown up along the Trunk Road and the main bridge over the Sungei Bata. However, the Japanese, with their characteristic ruthlessness and efficiency, had other plans.

The Japanese, on the other hand, were a well-oiled machine, having repaired damaged bridges, bypassed the British defences and launched a surprise attack on the Changlun Timah outpost. The defenders, caught off guard, were overwhelmed. The Japanese tanks, relentless and unstoppable, tore through the British lines, leaving chaos and destruction in their wake.

Meanwhile, a miscalculation by the British further compounded their woes. Mistaking a friendly force for the enemy, they destroyed a vital bridge at Manggoi River, cutting off vital supply lines. The Japanese, seizing the opportunity, exploited the confusion and pushed deeper into British territory.

British Order of Battle at Jitra, 11th Indian Division (Major General D. M. Murray-Lyon)

As the British retreated, the 28th Brigade was tasked with reinforcing the beleaguered 15th Brigade. The 28th Brigade, led by a determined commander, managed to halt the Japanese advance in several key engagements. However, the overall situation remained grim. The British, outnumbered and outgunned, were struggling to contain the relentless Japanese onslaught. The British retired in disorder towards Gurun, 30 miles along the Trunk Road to the south. The fate of Malaya hung in the balance.

Battle of Kampar
After the disastrous defeat at Jitra, the British forces retreated to the Kampar line, a defensive position that offered some natural advantages. Brigadier A.C.M. Paris, temporarily commanding the 11th Indian Division, hoped to hold the line and buy time for reinforcements to arrive. However, the Japanese 5th Division, led by Lieutenant General Matsui Takuro, was relentless. The Japanese launched a series of attacks, but the British defenders, though outnumbered and outgunned, fought with courage and determination.

The Japanese, however, were not to be denied. They launched a flanking manoeuvre, landing troops at Hutan Melintang. This move threatened to cut off the British supply lines and outflank their positions. Faced with this imminent threat, Brigadier Paris was forced to order a withdrawal. The Battle of Kampar, though a valiant effort, marked another significant setback for the British forces in Malaya.

Battle of Kuantan
The coastal town of Kuantan became the next battleground, with the 22nd Brigade tasked with defending the vital airfield. The British had fortified the beaches with pillboxes and barbed wire. The Japanese, ever relentless, launched a two-pronged attack on Kuantan. The Takumi Detachment advanced directly towards the town, aiming to capture the vital airfield. Simultaneously, another Japanese force attacked from behind, infiltrating through the rugged terrain of the Jabor Valley.

The fighting was fierce, with both sides suffering heavy casualties. Lieutenant Colonel Cumming, leading the 2/12th Frontier Force Regiment, displayed extraordinary courage in the face of overwhelming odds. Despite being wounded twice, he led his men in a desperate counterattack, buying precious time for the British forces to withdraw. His heroic actions earned him the Victoria Cross.

The fall of Kuantan marked another significant setback for the British. The loss of the airfield deprived the Allied forces of a vital airbase, further weakening their ability to resist the Japanese advance. As the British retreated, the shadow of defeat loomed large over Malaya.

_{Standing their ground in the dense jungle of Malaya, Indian soldiers fire trench mortars from a tapioca patch at the oncoming Japanese. Image source: https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-fall-of-malaya-japanese-blitzkrieg-on-singapore/}

Battle of Slim River
The battered British forces, reeling from the defeat at Kampar, retreated to the Slim River line. The dense jungle on either side of the road and railway track offered a semblance of security.

The Japanese, relentless as ever, launched a surprise attack in the early hours of the morning. Tanks rumbled through the jungle, their tracks tearing through the dense undergrowth. The British, caught off guard, were overwhelmed by the sheer force of the Japanese assault. Communication lines were down, and units were isolated, struggling to coordinate their defences. The British, unable to coordinate an effective defence, were forced to retreat.

The Fall of Kuala Lumpur
The relentless Japanese advance continued, and soon the heart of Malaya was within their grasp. Kuala Lumpur, the bustling capital city, fell to the invaders on January 11, 1942. The Japanese, utilising bicycles to swiftly maneuver through the dense jungle, outmaneuvered and overwhelmed the British defenders.

_{Riding bicycles, a Japanese unit rolls rapidly forward, when the tires went flat, the soldiers continued to ride on the metal rims. Image source: https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-fall-of-malaya-japanese-blitzkrieg-on-singapore/}

Battle of Gemas
The final chapter of the Malayan Campaign unfolded in the southernmost state of Johor. The Australian forces, now tasked with defending the beleaguered peninsula, faced a daunting challenge. The Battle of Gemas was a desperate attempt to slow the Japanese advance. Australian troops, under the command of General Bennett, planned an ambush to inflict heavy casualties on the enemy. However, a series of tactical errors and logistical failures undermined the plan. The retreat from Muar, a crucial defensive position, further weakened the British defenses. The surviving troops were forced to withdraw to Parit Sulong, where they faced another brutal battle.

As the Japanese closed in on Johor Bahru, the British were forced to make a difficult decision. To deny the enemy a vital bridgehead, they destroyed the Johor Causeway, severing the land link between Malaya and Singapore. With the fall of Johore, the British were forced to abandon Malaya and retreat to the island fortress of Singapore.

And then a hero comes along…
The fall of Singapore was a devastating blow to the British Empire. However, even in the darkest hours, acts of extraordinary bravery emerged. One such act was the heroic last stand of Lieutenant Adnan Saidi and his men at Pasir Panjang.

Adnan, a young Malay officer, led his troops in a desperate defense against the invading Japanese forces. Outnumbered and outgunned, they fought with courage and determination, holding off the enemy for days. The battle at Pasir Panjang became a symbol of resistance and sacrifice, inspiring generations of Malaysians.

Adnan, a true patriot, paid the ultimate price for his bravery. He was captured and executed by the Japanese, but his legacy lives on. He is remembered as a national hero, a symbol of courage and sacrifice.

The Japanese, with a formidable force of approximately 70,000 troops, needed just 68 days to conquer the Malay Peninsula and Singapore—one of the most decisive victories of World War II. Following this swift campaign, northern Borneo succumbed shortly after, with Sarawak and British North Borneo falling under Japanese control by the end of January 1942, facing minimal resistance.

The fall of Malaya was a turning point that reshaped Southeast Asia’s political and military landscape. It exposed the vulnerabilities of colonial powers and the impact of underestimating an adversary. Zafrani Amran’s analysis highlights the complexities of this campaign, reminding us that history’s lessons are as vital today as they were then.

About the speaker
Zafrani Amran hails from Kota Bharu, Kelantan, a place rich in history and significant as the site of the Japanese landing during World War II. Growing up, Zafrani often visited the beach, where he saw the pillbox and heard harrowing tales of Indian soldiers, chained inside, forced to fight against the Japanese. His father, who grew up during the Japanese occupation, also shared vivid accounts of life during that time. These stories sparked his curiosity and ignited a lifelong passion for uncovering and preserving stories from the Japanese occupation of Malaya.

Reference and Reading Material:
‘Sir, They Sunk Our Battleship’: HMS Prince of Wales Changed History Forever by Maya Carlin (https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/sir-they-sunk-our-battleship-hms-prince-wales-changed-history-forever-210230)

Operation Battle of Jitra from https://codenames.info/operation/battle-of-jitra/

The Fall of Malaya: Japanese Blitzkrieg on Singapore from https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-fall-of-malaya-japanese-blitzkrieg-on-singapore/

First shot in the Pa­cific war: What hap­pened in Kota Baru 75 years ago to­day, when the Ja­panese ar­rived from https://www.pressreader.com/malaysia/the-star-malaysia-star2/20161208/281603830092588

Malayan Campaign from https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=f2e9428f-c2cc-4c21-8a33-6ba79d03d77e

For Valour : Squadron Leader Arthur Stewart King Scarf (37693) VC Royal Air Force from https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/blog/for-valour-squadron-leader-arthur-stewart-king-scarf-37693-vc-royal-air-force/

Commerating the Historical Event of Bukit Chandu and Lt Adnan Saidi from https://mymilitarytimes.com/index.php/2021/02/14/commerating-the-historical-event-of-bukit-chandu-and-lt-adnan-saidi/

MV Focus Talk with Emna Esseghir

Written by Noriko Nishizawa 

_{Zitouna mosque in Tunisia with full moon view (photo : http://www.tunisi.info)}

On the eve of Ramadan 2024, our fellow museum volunteer, Emna Esseghir, gave us a very insightful talk about Ramadan. Emna hails from Tunis, Tunisia, and has been residing in Malaysia for the past six years. She has been a passionate volunteer guide at Muzium Negara since 2023. We affectionately refer to her as our Tunisian ambassador to Malaysia, as she has generously shared her knowledge of Tunisia and its culture with us. Her presentation provided a unique perspective on Islam, encompassing not only Tunisia and Malaysia but also offering a cross-cultural examination of Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr traditions and practices.

_{Emna Esseghir (photos: Noriko Nishizawa)}

Brief History of Islam

It is believed that Islam started in 610 CE when 40-year-old Muhammad, who was born in Mecca in western Arabia, received his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. The night Gabriel appeared to him in a cave during a retreat is called the Night of Power/Destiny (Laylat al-Qadr).

Gabriel said to Muhammad, “Read in the name of your Lord…” until he learned the words by heart. The messages from Gabriel continued for the rest of his life, and these revelations were subsequently collected and codified as the Qur’an (literally “to read/recite” in Arabic), the Muslim holy book. The essence of Gabriel’s messages was simple: it affirmed the existence of one god, Allah, and declared that Muhammad was his appointed messenger. The messages also provided guidelines for proper behavior within the framework of a just and equitable society. Around that time, Mecca, the religious center, was a prosperous city, and the Kaaba, then a shrine and a place of pilgrimage housing the pagan deities, was worshipped by the Arabs. The Prophet Muhammad’s messages weren’t well received among the leaders of Mecca. In the face of opposition and persecution in Mecca, Muhammad and his followers emigrated north to another oasis town, Medina (Yathrib) in 622. This event, referred to as Hijrah/Hegira, proved to be a turning point for Islam because it marks the formation of the first community of Muslims. Muhammad continued to attract followers in Medina and also to fight off attacks against him and the faith with his army. Within a few years, Mecca largely embraced Islam as well, and the first thing Muhammad did upon his return to Mecca was to remove idols and rededicate the Kaaba to Allah. The Kaaba, which is a stone building, has become Islam’s holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram, and no matter where they are, Muslims always face in the direction of the Kaaba for prayer.

_{Leave from the Blue Qu’ran and The Spread of Islam at IAMM (photo: Noriko Nishizawa)}

Muhammad died in 632, and the following 30-year period is called the Rashidun (rightly guided) Caliphate, led by a series of four caliphs. A caliph (a successor) is a representative of the Prophet who governs the Muslim community, both politically and religiously in the early period, and a caliphate is a political community governed by a caliph. First, Abū Bakr, who was Muhammad’s father-in-law and a close associate, was elected as the first caliph and then followed by Umar, Uthamān, and Alī. Under their commands, the Arab armies expanded the new faith and leadership in the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. They then conquered Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from the Byzantine Empire, and Iraq and Iran from the Sasanian Empire. The next caliphate, the Umayyad, conquered territory from Spain and Portugal all the way to India and Pakistan by the end of 750. The Ayyubid Caliphate became the largest and most powerful empire in the world by developing a religious, political, and cultural commonwealth. Interestingly, the conversion to Islam in the early period was quite slow because the expansion of the empires happened so fast. On the other hand, the spread of Islam in regions where Muslims are quite numerous today, like Indonesia, Malaysia, and sub-Saharan Africa, happened between the 13th and the 15th centuries quite quickly, through merchants and religious scholars.

_{(Source: Wikimedia.org, this file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license)}

Emna showed us this map: Map of the Muslim World With the Main Madhhabs. She emphasized that as of 2020, there were 1.8 billion people, more than 25% of the world’s population, who practiced Islam, and Muslims were not only in Arab countries but also everywhere. Then she touched on the two main branches of Islam and some madhhabs/mazahib, referring to Islamic schools of thought. Sunni and Shia/Shīʿa are the two main branches of Islam, and around 85% of the Muslim population are Sunnis, with 15% being Shias (source: the Council on Foreign Relations). While Shias are concentrated mainly in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon, Sunnis are the majority in more than 40 other countries. These two sects within Islam share most of the fundamental beliefs and practices of the religion, but they differ in doctrine, law, ritual, and religious organization.

The roots of the Sunni-Shia division can be traced back to the seventh century, soon after the death of Muhammad. Shias believe that Muhammad publicly designated Alī, his cousin and son-in-law, as the first in line of hereditary Imams (“leaders” in Arabic) from his family, whereas Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not explicitly declare a successor. Sunnis viewed the caliphs as both religious and political leaders in the early period. Over time, the caliphs functioned as political rulers, while the scholars (Ulamā/Ulema) were considered religious authorities and interpreters. For Sunnis, Imam is most commonly used as the title for a prayer leader at a mosque. In contrast, for most Shias, Imams are absolute leaders of the Islamic communities, since they believe that Imams should be spiritual descendants of Muhammad and are responsible for interpreting the faith, as well as improving the quality of their lives.

_{(Source: Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey by Adam Kliczek, http://memoriesstay.com)}

Madhhab means ‘a way’, and it is a method of interpreting the religion that binds a group or school of scholars together. Today, there are four major Sunni madhhabs: Hanafī, Hanbalī, Mālikī, and Shafi’i. For example, Tunisia is mostly Mālikī and Malaysia is Shafi’i. According to Emna, we don’t really see differences between Mālikī and Shafi’i in our daily life, but Mālikī, also called the ‘school of Medina’, could be a little more flexible in terms of customs and traditions compared to other Sunni madhhabs.

Understanding Ramadan: What You Need to Know About Ramadan

Overall:

(1) The term “Ramaḍān (رَمَضَان)” originates from an Arabic root denoting “extreme heat” or “dryness”. 

(2) Ramadan is the ninth month in the Islamic calendar and is considered one of the holiest months because it is devoted to fasting, one of the Five Pillars of Islam which are the core beliefs and practices of Islam.

(3) Ramadan existed before Islam.  Ramadan is said to have been an important and holy month for the Arabs long before Muhammad introduced Islam.  They stopped fighting and tried to meditate at temples and caves during that time.  Muslims believe that the Night of Power happened during Ramadan.

The Islamic Calendar/The Hijri Calendar:

(4) The Islamic calendar plays an important role in the life of Muslims as it specifies the time for Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, Hajj, etc.  Little is known about the pre-Islamic calendar; however, some historians maintain that it was similar to the modern Islamic calendar.  Although Arabs were already using the calendar based on lunar months, they didn’t have a specific number or term to register the year, and it became quite confusing.  As a result, the second caliph, Umar, introduced the new calendar in 639.  The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and the Hijrah in 622 marks the beginning of the calendar.  It symbolises the Muslim’s journey to fulfill all the Five Pillars of Islam: renewing the faith constantly, performing prayers, paying annual Zakat (a financial obligation to donate to charitable causes), fasting in Ramadan, and fulfilling the Hajj (a once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage made to the Kaaba).

Fasting

(5) Fasting was already a common religious practice among the pre-Islamic Arabs, and they used to fast on Āshūrā (the tenth day of Muharram) to observe the day God parted the Red Sea to allow Moses and his people to escape Egypt.  Muhammad also used to fast on Ashura.  Actually, Ashura has become an important mourning day for Shias, because it was the day Imam Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, was martyred in the battle.  Even today many people still fast on Ashura.  As for the fasting during Ramadan, it is believed that Muhammad received a revelation regarding Sawn (fasting) from the angel Gabriel two years after Hijrah, and then he established fasting as one of the holy month’s (Ramadan) practices.

(6) Food and drink aren’t the only things Muslims have to abstain from.  There are other activities they also cannot participate in to cleanse their mind and soul. Fasting is obligatory for all Muslims who have reached the age of puberty, who are of sound mind, and who have good health.  However, those who are in pre-puberty, old and frail, sick, pregnant, breastfeeding, menstruating or travelling are excused, but there are other requirements they must abide by.

(7) Sunni and Shia practice fasting slightly differently.  Sunnis break their fast as soon as the prayer (maghrib) starts as the sun is no longer visible on the horizon.  Whereas Shias wait until the end of the prayer which  starts when the last ray of light vanishes and the sky becomes totally dark.

(8) Fasting is an act of worship bringing one closer to God, as well as a form of spiritual discipline and a means to empathize with those less fortunate. 

How to Observe Ramadan:

(9) Ramadan begins 10-12 days earlier each year because the Islamic calendar year is shorter than the Gregorian calendar, allowing it to fall in every season throughout a 33-year cycle.  The Islamic calendar follows the literal cycles of the moon, and each month of the calendar begins with the sighting of the early crescent moon.  Telescopes as well as astronomical calculations and technology are used to establish the moon’s appearance.  Consequently, the exact start of Ramadan is not confirmed until the day before, although an approximate start date is calculated in advance.  Also the exact timing varies from country to country, depending on when local Islamic authorities in each country declare the sighting of the new moon.  It is the same for the end of Ramadan.  Emna told us that in Tunisia’s case, the country still sent out someone in each state to a higher place to sight the moon.  It would be good enough to start Ramadan if even one of them (24 states) spots the moon.

(10) Ramadan is not all about fasting.  Some of the special practices during Ramadan include eating a special pre-dawn meal called suhoor/suḥūr before starting the daily fast at dawn, and then eating another meal called Ifṭār to break the fast at sunset.  During Ramadan Muslims also take part in extra worship such as Tarāwīḥ/Taraweehprayers (night prayers) observed by Sunnis in addition to the five daily prayers: Fajr (dawn), Zuhr (afternoon), Asr (late afternoon), Maghrib (after sunset), and Isha (night time).  Also, towards the end of Ramadan, many Muslims make a special charitable donation which goes to the less fortunate.

(11) The Night of Power is one of the most sacred nights in the Islamic calendar, and it is believed to be a night of great reward and significance.  This night falls within Ramadan’s last 10 days.  Although it commonly considered as the 27^th night, the exact date is unknown.  As a result, Muslims are encouraged to intensify worship and devotion during the last 10 nights of Ramadan, especially during the odd nights (21^st, 23^rd, 25^th, 27^th, and 29^th ).

Ramadan Customs and Traditions:

(12) It is customary for many Muslims to break their daily fast and celebrate Eid al-Fitr by eating dates.  Of course, dates grow in many Muslim countries and are quite nutritious.  This custom goes back to the beginning of Ramadan, as it is said that Muhammad ate dates to break his fast.  

(13) The Ramadan drummers called Musaherati are one of the most important markers of Ramadan.  Every year these volunteer drummers would roam the streets in their neighborhoods an hour before dawn to wake up people to have suhoor, by drumming, calling out people’s names, and even reciting poems.  In the Ottoman and Andalusia cultures, the drummers even competed to claim who was the best!  Musaherati is another tradition that almost disappeared in most cities.  

(14) The adhān/azan (“announcement” in Arabic) is the Islamic call to prayer, usually recited by a muezzin who chants from a minaret five times a day.  It is not Ramadan specific, but it is important particularly during Ramadan because people wait for maghrib to break their daily fast.  According to Emna, although the call to prayer in each country sounds quite different, the words spoken in prayer are the same or very similar.  The most notable difference in wording are the slight variations between Sunni and Shia.  The beauty of the adhan lies in its melody – the rhythm and tone of the words captivate the listeners and make each adhan sound different.  The adhan was developed during the Ottoman Empire as a creative way for listeners to be able to tell the time of prayer just by hearing the tone of the adhan.

Eid al-Fitr:

(15) Eid al-Fitr known as the “festival of breaking the fast” marks the end of Ramadan and is celebrated during the first three days of Shawwāl, the 10^th month of the Islamic calendar.  On the first day, people attend a special communal prayer at mosques during the day and then enjoy a feast with families and friends.

Emna shared many of her own personal experiences of Ramadan and described how festive Tunis was during this special time.  All the shops and restaurants were open throughout the night, and there were many concerts as well.  She said Cairo was even more festive than Tunis!  

Emna enjoyed her mother’s cooking, and during Ramadan her mother made special dishes.  Her mother also prepared a lot of food to share with other people, especially those in need.  In Tunis, sometimes cannons were used for the call to prayer.  We could still experience all of them today.  

Emna concluded her talk emphasizing that Ramadan was not just about fasting, but was rather a time to help each other share joy.

References:

Suzan Yalman, The Birth of Islam https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isla/hd_isla.htm

Introduction to Islam, Khan Academy https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/medieval-times/spread-of-islam

Sarah Pruitt,  Islam’s Sunni-Shia Divide, Explained https://www.history.com/news/sunni-shia-divide-islam-muslim

Ramadan, Britannica  https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan

Indlieb Farazi Saber, The art of the adhan: The multiple melodies of the Muslim call to prayer https://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/adhan-muslim-call-prayer-melodies-maqams

UstazMuhammad Abdul Mateen Bin Hisham, 4 Intriguing Things You May Not Know About the Islamic Hijri Calendar https://muslim.sg/articles/4-intriguing-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-islamic-hijri-calendar

Dima Al-Sharif, AL Musaherati Tradition https://www.dimasharif.com/musaherati-ramadan-drummers/#:~:text=While%20during%20those%20days%20the,created%20specifically%20for%20the%20occasion.

Focus Talk with Professor Dr. Masatoshi Sone

Written by Manjeet Dhillon

Introduction: Unveiling Lost Diversity in Borneo

At the MV Focus Talk series, the subject of the day was ‘Lost Diversity of Sundaic Borneo: New Findings from Sarawak.’ Our speaker was Dr. Masatoshi Sone, who shared insightful findings from his recent expedition where he spent a good ten days in the coal fields of Ulu Rajang looking for fossils. The talk began with an exploration of Sundaland, the name of the ancient continent that once included Borneo, Peninsula Malaysia, Sumatra, and Jawa Island. Geologically, Kuala Lumpur is situated in the heart of this vast continent.

Sundaland: A Fragmented Ancient Continent

About 11,000 years ago, this was one big piece of land. As sea levels rose, Borneo became separated from mainland Asia and other islands.  The Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russell Wallace, a British naturalist who explored the region over a century ago, marks a transition zone between the distinct fauna of Asia and Australasia. This imaginary line runs from the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok in the south, all the way up through the Makassar Strait between Kalimantan (Borneo) and Sulawesi in the north.  The islands on one side, like Sumatra, are mostly volcanic within a subduction zone with tectonic plates. This goes all the way to the east, including the Komodo islands, Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea, and Australia.

Plate 1: Wallace’s Line

Following Wallace’s Lead: Biogeography and Island Evolution

During his expeditions, Alfred Wallace, a naturalist with a keen eye for geology, noticed a peculiar phenomenon. Many animals, including birds of the same species, were present in Sumatra but seemed to disappear as you moved towards Lombok and the regions west of it. Wallace identified a significant biogeographic boundary between Bali and Lombok. Surprisingly, this invisible line had a profound impact on the distribution of various bird species. Many birds, it appeared, were reluctant to cross even the narrowest stretches of open ocean water. Essentially, Wallace believed that species change over time so they could fit into new environments.

This led Wallace to observe that in Bali, you’d find thrushes, woodpeckers, barbets, trogons, paradise flycatchers, paradise shrikes, minivets, blue drongos, pheasants, and jungle fowl, but colourful exotic birds were a rare sight. In contrast, in Sulawesi, Papua, and Timor, parrots, cockatoos, and lories were abundant.

The Wallace Line extends further between Borneo and Sulawesi, although this boundary is not visible to the human eye. However, animals seem to sense or perceive this invisible division. It’s important to note that Wallace’s discoveries were primarily based on biological observations (where he spent many years obtaining samples of birds, insects and animals) rather than in-depth geological knowledge of the islands. His research led him to a conclusion: animals evolve by adapting to their specific environments rather than by migrating to new ones.

Fueled by a passion to understand how new species arise, Wallace joined an Amazon expedition in 1848 (with Henry Bates). Sadly, a shipwreck in 1852 claimed most of their collected specimens. Undeterred, Wallace embarked on a groundbreaking Southeast Asian voyage (1854) that spanned eight years. His meticulous collection efforts yielded a staggering 125,000 specimens, including the iconic flying frog, and significantly advanced our understanding of the natural world.

A Glimpse into Earth’s Geological Timeline

Next ,we looked into the Earth’s geological timeline, which spans an immense 4.6 billion years. A particularly noteworthy period within this timeline is the Cenozoic era, which commenced approximately 66 million years ago. During this era, we witnessed the emergence of mammals and birds, along with the gradual evolution of primates and early hominids.

In the midst of the Cenozoic era (at the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods), a large meteorite crashed into our planet, specifically in the  area of the Caribbean Sea. This catastrophic impact spelled doom for the dinosaurs and many other species, opening the door for mammals to flourish and diversify.

As we consider Earth’s geological timeline, we find a key division between the Quaternary and Tertiary eras. This shift hinges on the transition from the Tertiary period, encompassing epochs like the Pliocene and earlier, to the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs of the Quaternary. This change mirrors significant shifts in climate, marked by a warming trend and rising sea levels. It’s also notable for the emergence of Homo sapiens, making it a pivotal juncture in our planet’s history.

Furthermore, the shift from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epochs indicates a transition from the last ice age, characterised by glaciers atop Mount Kinabalu. Interestingly, this transition aligns with Earth’s broader climatic cycle, suggesting that we’re gradually heading towards the next ice age in the grand scheme of geological time.

Plate 2: Geological Time Scale

Fossil Fuels: A Legacy of the Cenozoic Era in Malaysia

In the context of Malaysian geology, the Cenozoic period takes on paramount importance. This geological era witnessed the formation of numerous oil and gas (hydrocarbon) resources within the country. Throughout this time, a series of geological processes transpired, which included the accumulation of organic material and the creation of suitable conditions for the development of oil and gas reservoirs.

These developments have solidified Malaysia’s standing as one of the key regions for oil and gas production in Southeast Asia. Notably, substantial reserves can be found both onshore and offshore, underlining the nation’s significance in the oil and gas industry.

Borneo: From Sundaland to Fragmented Islands

Before the end of the ice age, Southeast Asia was part of a landmass known as Sundaland. This area connected many of today’s islands (Peninsula Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo but also Java, Bali, parts of the Malay Peninsula, and other smaller islands in the region) into a single landmass due to lower sea levels caused by the extensive ice sheets.

As the Ice Age concluded, the rising sea levels, about 110 metres higher, submerged much of Sundaland, including the lowlands between the elevated regions of Peninsula Malaysia, Sumatra, Jawa, and Borneo. This flooding led to the formation of rivers like the Chao Phraya, Pahang, Pekan, Kuching, and Rajang rivers, which were previously part of the terrestrial landscape.

Sarawak’s Caves: A Treasure Trove for Prehistory

Looking at Sarawak, we have some famous caves such as Niah cave, and also Mulu. The caves in this region have been of interest to palaeontologists due to the discovery of prehistoric fossils and archaeological artefacts. These findings have contributed to our understanding of the region’s prehistoric past.

In archaeology,  the Niah caves (Sarawak – discovery of skulls in 1958) and Madai caves (eastern Sabah), contain remains of prehistoric human activity, where Niah is famous with coffins together with animal remains, These caves also hold animal remains alongside human artefacts, otherwise for most of Sarawak there is no paleontological record. Evidence suggests human activity in the area began around 30,000 years ago. Fossils, including those of tigers and tapirs, have also been found. Notably, these animals are no longer present in Borneo, having disappeared naturally before human arrival.

The third largest city in Sarawak is Sibu, where we can journey along the Rajang River (longest river in Malaysia) to Kapit, a town located inland along the river. The Rajang river also flows in the general direction towards the largest dam in Malaysia, the Bakun Dam which is located on the Balui River (a tributary of the Rajang River).  Here we now have two smaller rivers or tributaries merging with the Rajang River in Kapit, then continuing downstream towards the river’s estuary, where it meets the South China Sea. This is where the fresh water from the river mixes with the saltwater of the sea. 

Plate 3: Rajang river basin

Unearthing Borneo’s Past: The Rajang River and Fossil Discoveries

The Rajang River’s characteristics stand out in contrast to typical slow-flowing and meandering rivers in Malaysia, where it is a straight course and fast flowing. This might be because it originates in or flows through areas with steeper terrain, where the river descends more rapidly. As it approaches Sibu, the river transforms into smaller channels, creating a delta structure. This delta is the product of sediment deposits and the river’s interactions with the sea. It provides a favourable environment for a notable population of large crocodiles, making Sibu their known habitat.

Here at this delta, many fossil remains have been discovered such as spines, fins or ribs of fish. Fossils are often found in black or brown hues, indicating they have undergone the fossilisation process including phosphatisation.

Island Endemism: The Case of the Bornean Banteng

Fascinating fossil discoveries in Sabah include the premolars of the Banteng or Tembadau in Malay (species: bos javanicus), a wild cow species, which we understand has been here before humans and during Sundaic time as well. Bornean bantengs are smaller due to a phenomenon called “insular dwarfism” or “miniaturisation.”, where island-dwelling mammals tend to evolve smaller body sizes over time (same applies for African elephants and Asian elephants). This phenomenon is a remarkable example of how isolated island environments can influence the evolution of species, leading to unique adaptations and characteristics. The Banteng is facing a gradual decline in Sarawak and is on the brink of extinction in Malaysia. Currently, Cambodia hosts the largest population, followed by Australia. It’s important to note that these populations in Cambodia and Australia are not native but were introduced by humans.

Plate 4: Banteng (wild cow)

Echoes of the Past: Fossil Tapirs and Their Relatives

Fossils of tapirs, identified as a type of metatarsal belonging to the extinct Tapirus sp., have been found in the Niah and Madai Caves. However, these tapirs are not directly ancestral to the present-day Malayan tapir. While they may have shared similar black and white stripes, these extinct tapirs inspired legends of a mythical creature that came through China and could eat our trees.

There are four species (four genus) of Tapirs in the world:

• Lowland Tapir (Tapirus terrestris)
• Baird’s Tapir (Tapirus bairdii)
• Mountain Tapir (Tapirus pinchaque)
• Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus)

Plate 5: Tapir

Today’s DNA studies confirm the Malayan tapir as the sole surviving Asian tapir species, with its closest relative being the American tapir.  Evidence suggests tapirs originated in Eurasia, where they are now extinct.  The split between Malayan and American tapirs likely occurred around 25 million years ago, predating the most recent ice age.  This time frame coincides with periods of lower sea levels that exposed land bridges, allowing many mammal migrations  like horses, sheep, and even some Asian monkeys to move from Eurasia to North America and eventually South America.  While the tapir story might not directly involve the most recent ice bridge, it highlights how continental movements and changing sea levels have shaped the distribution of animals throughout history.

Extinct Tapir Diversity and Zooarchaeology

While the Malayan tapir is the only survivor in Asia, evidence suggests a greater diversity of tapirs once existed. A striking example comes from the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave in East Kalimantan, Borneo. This prehistoric limestone cave, dating back to the Pleistocene epoch, features a large reddish-orange figurative cave drawing of animals. These depictions, alongside fossil remains like those of tigers now absent from Borneo, highlight the valuable role of zooarchaeology in reconstructing past ecosystems. By studying animal remains and artistic representations, we can gain insights into species that no longer roam these regions.

Plate 6: Cave drawing at Lubang Jeriji Saléh, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo

Uncertain Fossil Identity and Regional Rhino Extinction

Some fossils unearthed in East Malaysia reveal animal hooves that could belong to either tapirs or rhinoceroses. Unfortunately, differentiating between them solely based on hoof characteristics is challenging. Sadly, rhinoceroses are already regionally extinct in East Malaysia. The last recorded Sumatran rhinoceros in Sabah died in 2015, prompting the government to declare its local extinction. However, there’s a glimmer of hope.  A small population of 10 to 20 individuals was discovered in East Kalimantan in 2016, highlighting the importance of conservation efforts for this critically endangered species.

Fossil Evidence of Sea Cows (Sirenia) in Sarawak

Aquatic mammal fossils, identified as sea cows (Sirenia) or dugongs, have also been unearthed in Sarawak.  These gentle giants, related to manatees found in Central America and the Caribbean, once thrived in the coastal regions.  They fed primarily on seaweeds.  Sadly, sea cows are now locally extinct in Sarawak.

One key characteristic that aids in identifying Sirenia fossils is their density.  Due to their composition of calcium carbonate, these bones are significantly heavier than most other animal remains.  This weight factor alerted Dr. Sone’s team to the possibility of a Sirenia fossil upon discovery.

The Enigma of the Tambun Cave Dugong

The Tambun limestone cave in Ipoh boasts archaeological paintings, estimated to be around 5,000 years old, featuring an image resembling a dugong. This poses a fascinating puzzle considering the significant distance between the current coastline and the cave’s inland location. Further research, potentially involving geological studies and a deeper analysis of the cave paintings, might shed light on this intriguing mystery.

Plate 7: Tambun (Ipoh) cave painting: dugong

The Story of the Suidae Family and the Bearded Pig

The Suidae family, encompassing wild pigs and boars, boasts a global distribution across Eurasia, North Africa, and the Greater Sunda Islands.  Evidence suggests their origin lies in Southeast Asia during the Pleistocene epoch (1.4 million to 11,000 years ago).  From this ancestral homeland, they likely migrated outwards into other parts of Eurasia.

Wild Pigs of Borneo: Bearded Natives and Introduced Relatives

Borneo boasts two distinct wild pig species, both belonging to the genus Sus. The first, and likely more familiar, is the wild boar (Sus scrofa).  While not native to Borneo, this species can interbreed with domestic pigs.  The second, and truly indigenous pig, is the bearded pig (Sus barbatus).  Fossil evidence, particularly differences in molar morphology, helps differentiate these two species.

Distribution patterns paint a clear picture.  The common wild boar, also known as the Eurasian wild boar, dominates across Eurasia, with introduced populations in Australia and northern South America.  In contrast, the bearded pig reigns supreme in Borneo, with a smaller presence in Peninsular Malaysia.  Interestingly, fossils from the Niah Caves reveal no evidence of the common wild boar, only the bearded pig.  This suggests that the wild boars currently found in Borneo were likely introduced by humans.

However, there’s a twist! Fossil discoveries in central Sarawak showcase the presence of both pig species even before human arrival.  This intriguing find remains an active area of research.

Summary

Understanding Borneo’s rich biodiversity, both past and present, is crucial for informing conservation efforts and protecting this irreplaceable natural heritage. Dr. Masatoshi’s team is currently exploring fossils of a fly and plant fossils in a coal mine in Sarawak.

Reading material from MV Library

Here are some books that would likely be excellent reading material for further exploration:

1. Borneo Biodiversity: Tropical Rainforests from the Heart of Southeast Asia (ISBN 9789811073447) by Eric D. Wikramanayake, Michael D. Sorenson, and Thomas J. Conway

2. Island Biogeography: Theory and Conservation Practice (ISBN 9780691166488) by David Wright

3. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Borneo (ISBN 9789834280635) by J. Payne, C. Francis, and K. Phillipps

4. The Quaternary Period (ISBN 9780131174749) by John A. Quaternary

5. Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Volume 4. Early History by Dato’ Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman

6. The Malay Archipelago by Alfred Russell Wallace

By Julian Candiah – MV Focus Talk of 24th February 2024

Written By Hani Kamal

Julian Candiah is a collector of antique maps and sea charts from Malaysia and Singapore.  He read Engineering at Magdalene College, Cambridge University, and graduated with a First-Class Honours in 1991.  He started off as an international banker at Credit Suisse Financial Products, Bear Stearns, JP Morgan, and BNP Paribas in London, Hong Kong and Singapore (1994 to 2007) before joining Merrill Lynch in 2006. In 2007, he was into private equity and investments.  In April 2009, he worked pro bono for the state of Penang, acting as the Special Advisor to the Chief Minister.  He is currently working on short articles on the history of Johor from the early 19th Century. He has a collection of over 20 sea from the English, Dutch, French and Italian cartographers in his 40 years of collecting.  For him collection is genre. A specialised pursuit to acquire old maps involving very distinct set of skills related to acquiring, preserving, and sharing his knowledge about these maps.

The first half of the talk centred around maps about the Straits of Malacca drafted by connoisseurs of sea charts, Sebastian Munster (1530s), Ortelius, Antwerp (1570), Jan Huygen Van Linchoten (1595), De Bry Frankfurt (1598), John Thornton (1701) and Johannes van Kullen (1753).  He ended with sharing maps from the English, like Robert Dudley, Florence: Straits of Malacca (1646); Jacques Nicholas Bellin, Paris: Straits of Malacca (1755); Jean Baptiste de Mannevillette, France: Straits of Malacca (1775), and William Heather, London: Straits of Malacca (1803).

Map 1 First SEA Standardised Atlas

Map 1 This the first South East Asia standardised atlas from 1570 created by Abraham Ortelius. Ortelius collaborated with geographers worldwide to standardise the map, which was then compiled into a book that became one of the most expensive works of its time. It is obviously evident that the sizes of Malaysia, Java, Borneo, Philippines, Japan, Australia, and Papua New Guinea are significantly distorted on the map. The map of Japan has no Hokkaido and Luzon is missing from the Philippines. Interestingly, the map accurately depicts the smaller islands known for clove or spice production.Historically, the strategic port of Malacca was captured by the Portuguese and Dutch due to its essential services such as loading/repair facilities and a readily available food and water supply. These colonial powers then swiftly moved on to the spice islands in search of valuable spices, often referred to us “gold” due to their immense value. Remarkably, current assessments indicate that this historic map holds a significant value of USD4000 or more on eBay.

                             Map 2 Linchoten Colored Map

Map 2 A full coloured map in 1595, but originally in black and white by Jan Huygen Van Linchoten (1563-1610). He was a Dutch and he spent five years working for the Portuguese as secretary to the Archbishop of Goa.  His materials and information were gathered from sailors and he made multiple copies of it.  Linchoten is noted to have contributed to the maps of South East Asia in his book “Itenerario”. This map is one of the earliest to depict Singapore as “Sincapura”.  Linchoten’s map,obtained secretly through Portuguese sailors, shows seafaring and trading routes; subsequently allowing other European powers to sail safely into the spice islands and breaking the Portuguese monopoly in the spice trade.

Map 3 Inverted Map in B&W

Map 4 Inverted Map in Color

Map 3 & 4 This map is inverted as the direction is coming in from India. As it was from the Portuguese nothing much was described on Java or Borneo, nor Korea, and Japan is out of perspective. However, mappings of Peninsula Malaysia was very much established.  As the map was compiled from sailors, sailing lines were notable.  Current value of the Linchoten map is worth USD19,000.

Map 5 First Printed Map of SEA in B&W

Map 5 The first printed map of South East Asia in black and white, and later added with colours.Theodore de Bry was born in 1528 in the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, in the southern Netherlands (today Belgium). He was trained as a goldsmith in his father’s workshop and later as a copper engraver in Antwerp.  He moved to London and lived near a printing house, and it was here that he was inspired to produce maps that made his name known.  This particular map is decorated with beautiful ornate cartouches on map title and filled with rhumb lines showing bustling crossings.  A lot of details were found along the Straits of Malacca indicating robust activities and frequent stops  by trading ships.  Copy of the de Bry map was auctioned and acquired by the The National Museum of Singapore.                

     Map 6 English Map

Map 6 Map of Malacca and Singapore by John Thornton, Hydrographer of East India Company, London, 1701. This map is a 100% copy of a Dutch map of Malacca and Singapore.  At this time there were free flowing sharing of information and usage of English was beginning to appear in maps.  By 1753 maps were printed commercially. The map above has detailed travel routes of the islands, but the island of Singapore was still hardly visible.  This map is worth USD12,000-15,000.

 Map 7 Series of Maps 1803-1855

Map 7 The series of four maps between 1803 till 1855 illustrate the transformation of Singapore from a relatively obscure island to a thriving trading centre frequent by ships. In earlier maps, Singapore was often spelt as Sincapore and was barely discernible on English maps. Its significance as a trade centre for the British only grew after the British withdrawal from the settlement in Java. By 1855, one can see through the sea charts incorporated with land details such as street names, rivers, etc in detail.

                                                Map 8 Map Made with Vellum

Map 8 Vellum vs paper: These are maps printed on vellum, sheep skin.  Vellum was used since early 14th century by Italian navigators, one Bartolomeo Crescenzio (1587-1602) in his Mediterranean quest described vellum and maps, “Bartolomeo Crescenzio: “Nautica Mediterranea”, published in Rome, 1602 and 1607 by Bartolomeo Bonfadino. He was employed in the Naval Ships of Pope Sixtus V and Pope Clement VIII. Professor Ferro wrote as follows;

“There is little uncertainty, for instance, about the materials used and the techniques of execution. Nautical charts were hand-drawn on sheep vellum. The larger ones took up an entire pelt, preserving all of its characteristics and dimensions, i.e., a rectangular shape longer on one end (corresponding to the animal’s neck), where it forms the so-called linguetta [small tongue] or umbilicus; the opposite end was generally attached to a stick around which it was rolled (this explains the tears now visible, caused by forcible attempts to detach it). Of course smaller charts, depicting less extensive areas of sea and land, have other shapes (though still generally rectangular). These were mounted on wooden tablets or cardboard and met a different fate as far as preservation is concerned.

Following the tanning process, the parchment was treated and prepared in a timely manner, according to a procedure that was fully illustrated around the year 1600 by Crescenzio. To bleach its inner side (the side on which the design was to be traced) and to make it smooth, the vellum was rubbed with white lead and dried with a white cloth. Then the leftover skin bits were boiled in water until the mixture became thick and viscous. Another cloth (or a sponge) soaked in this fluid was then passed all over the well-stretched parchment. Once dry, this was rubbed with white lead a second time so as to render the surface perfectly white and smooth, eliminating any unevenness that might impede drawing or writing. The outer side, on the other hand, was left thick and rough, thus serving to protect the chart, at least partly, from temperature variations, humidity, and salinity.”  

According to the speaker this map is worth USD500,000.

Map 9 Robert Dudley’s First Sea Chart

Map 9 First Sea chart atlas by Robert Dudley 1646, is perhaps the most rare and revolutionary during that time.  It was the first sea atlas in the world, first to use various sophisticated seafaring engineering and created with accuracy reflecting his extensive knowledge as a cartographer.  It was the first to reflect magnetic deviation, first to detail water currents and prevailing winds. It was also the first to explain  the advantages of ”Great Circle Sailing” (shortest distance between two points of the globe). A magnificent and very rare sea atlas, currently worth USD 1 million.

Map 10 Series of Maps by William Heather, London

Map 10 The first important 19th century sea chart of the Straits of Malacca was mapped by William Heather (London, 1803) depicts the status of EIC’s role in Penang and along the Straits of Malacca.  The Straits was the busiest shipping highway at that period and so sea charts were utmost important.  For the British this was the gateway between India and the Far East. Maps with details of rhumb lines, sandbanks, mountains, street names, total population, etc were very useful. Singapore was hardly noticeable during the early 19th century and the maps on Singapore were totally wrong in shape and size in the earlier maps. This map was impressive at that period of time and soon ran into many revisions due to its deficiencies and lack of information about the Straits. Current value at USD17,000.

Conclusion

After going through the extensive history of sea charts, we tend to reflect on the maps found at Gallery B, Muzium Negara; Almost all of us referred to those maps as depicting Malacca’s popularity and the crucial role the maps played to European explorers sailing to Malacca looking for spices. However it is worth noting these were not intricate sea atlases or charts but rather simple maps highlighting the significance of Malacca during that era. Consequently, the portrayal of the entire Malaysian Peninsula as Malacca underscored the paramount importance attributed to this strategic location, with no information provided on other regions of the peninsula.

Three books were recommended by the speaker in reference to antique maps:

1. Early Mapping of South East Asia by Thomas Suarez
2. The Cartography of East Indian Islands by Dr David E Parry
3. Maps of Malaya and Borneo by Dr Frederic Durand

Reference:

MV Focus Talk by Julian Candiah at the MV Room, JMM on 24/02/2024

https://www.swaen.com/mapping-of/south-east-asia/early-maps-of-south-east-asia

https://sanderusmaps.com/our-catalogue/antique-maps/asia/southeast-asia/old-antique-map-of-southeast-asia-by-th

https://www.swaen.com/mapmakers/robert-dudley

https://oculi-mundi.com/collection/maps/SC-A-1647-Dudley-DellArcanoDelMare-VolIV-xc?viewingMode=research

https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/60506op/strait-of-malacca-sheet-1st-and-strait-of-malacca-horsburgh